MEANING OF SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
This chapter argues that the destiny of corporations is inextricably
linked with the well-being of the rest of the earth; hence, companies must
take a leading role in sustainable development. The concept of sustainable
development originated from several sources, but the most influential was
the World Commission on Environment and Development. In its 1987 report
entitled Our Common Future ("the Brundtland Report"), this commission
defined sustainable development as development which "meets the needs
of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs." A broad review of the literature on sustainable
development reveals a fairly strong consensus on the central or ultimate
goals of the idea.
Three interrelated elements are either explicit or implicit in most definitions.
The core objective is that of optimizing human welfare. Welfare or "well-being"
includes income and material consumption, along with education, health,
equality of opportunity, and human rights. Collective well-being increases
with the satisfaction of basic material needs and enlargement of the range
of human choices regarding satisfaction of intangible, less material needs.
Welfare rises when economies and societies "get better" and not
necessarily when they "get bigger." 1
The second overarching goal of sustainable development is to make all physical
and economic activity compatible with the surrounding biosphere. Herman
Daly suggests that rates of use of renewable resources such as forests and
fisheries should not exceed their rate of regeneration; rates of use of
nonrenewable resources such as fossil fuels and high grade mineral ores
should not exceed rates at which sustainable renewable resources can be
substituted for them; and rates of pollution emission should not exceed
the rates at which such pollution can be recycled, absorbed, or rendered
harmless by the environment. 2
Sustainability implies no net degradation of the wide range of indispensable
services provided by the natural environment. Imagine for instance, what
would happen if the atmosphere lost its oxygen, if the temperature dropped
to absolute zero, or if all plants were poisonous to humans. Any of these
and hundreds of other events would terminate life on earth. The capacities
of the natural environment to support human life are what we term "ecosystem
services."
The third and final goal is the equitable distribution of biospherically
compatible improvements in human well-being both today (within single countries
and between countries) and tomorrow (between present and future generations).
For reasons of stewardship, justice and efficiency, sustainability requires
both intergenerational equity and intragenerational equity. Justice demands
that attempts at human betterment on the part of any group should not come
at the expense of other groups today or generations in the future.
'Thus sustainable development can be defined as "biospherically compatible,
equitably distributed improvements in human welfare:' All three of the core
goals - welfare, equity and biospheric capacity - are concepts characterized
by considerable ambiguity and uncertainty. Indeed, matters of quality of
life, fairness, and natural limits will continue to be philosophically and
scientifically contestable for some time. 'This definition rejects the postwar
political consensus that human progress depends exclusively on an unrestricted
increase in production and consumption. And it seriously questions whether
the earth could sustain a conversion of the world's developing countries
into today's version of developed ones. Improvements in collective human
well-being will depend more on qualitative development than on physical
material expansion.
SIGNALS OF
UNSUSTAINABILITY 3
Recent data reveals a steady deterioration of the earth's physical condition and quality of life for a major portion of the human population. This data is summarized below.
THE ECO-RESOURCE
CONDITION
Declining Resources: The world has lost nearly 200 million hectares
of forests over the past 20 years, an area the size of the U.S. landmass
east of the Mississippi river. World forests were shrinking by an estimated
17 to 20 million hectares per year by the late 1980s. Almost II% of the
earth's vegetated surface (some 1.2 billion hectares) has undergone moderate
or severe soil degradation over the past four decades due to desertification,
erosion, salinization, or water logging causing stagnating or declining
yields in parts of many countries. An estimated 25 billion tons of topsoil
are being lost each year. Overfishing has reduced stocks of almost all commercial
species, some to less than a tenth of their former numbers. Water scarcity
and groundwater depletion are growing in the Middle East, North Africa,
Sub-Saharan Africa and in parts of China India, and Mexico, all regions
where population is growing rapidly.
Persistent Pollution: More than 2 million deaths and billions of
illnesses each year are attributable to water pollution. 1.3 billion people
worldwide live in urban areas that do not meet the World Health Organization's
for particulate matter, causing up to 700,000 premature deaths annually.
Stratospheric ozone layer depletion is to lead to 300,000 additional cases
of skin cancer a year worldwide, along with 1.7 million cases of cataracts.
Atmospheric concentrations of gases that may cause greenhouse warming, particularly
carbon dioxide, are growing steadily. 250 scientists in the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change project that, if current trends continue, average
global temperatures may increase by 1.5 to 4.5 degrees Celsius by the middle
of the next century, with associated changes in rainfall, agricultural productivity,
marine food chains and sea levels.
Threatened Biological Base: Tropical forests, home to a majority of the earth's plant and animal species, have declined by one-fifth in this century and the rate of destruction has accelerated. An estimated 42.5 million acres of tropical forests are being lost each year, up 50% since the late 1970s; half of the remaining forests could vanish in the next 40 years if the annual rate of loss remains at 0.9%. Leading biologists estimate that 50 to 100 species of animals and plants now become extinct each day, a rate of extinction at least a thousand times higher than before human intervention. A third of all species could be lost by 2020 due to exponential habitat destruction, pollution and climate change. Current rates of population growth and per-capita consumption could raise human appropriation of products of photosynthesis from present levels of 40% to 80% by 2030, crowding out and unraveling natural systems at a rapid rate.
THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC
CONDITION
Expanding Poverty: Nearly a quarter of the world's population, some
1.2 billion people, now live in absolute poverty. 'Me global poverty rate
rose in the 1980s, as average incomes fell in 43 less industrialized nations
- declining 10% in most of Latin America and 20% in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Creation of jobs in most of these countries has fallen far short of population
growth. Developing nation debt reached $1.3 trillion by 1990, with debt
service and other factors resulting in net financial transfers from poor
to rich nations in the 1980s on the order of $35 billion annually. From
1960 to 1989, the countries where the richest 20% of the world's population
lived increased their share of gross world product from 70.2% to 82.7%.
The poorest 20% of the world's people produced 1.4% of world GDP in 1989,
the poorest 40% just 3.3%, and poorest 60%, just 5.6%. The gap between rich
and poor nations has grown steadily, by a factor of two since 1960.
Growing Population: The world's population is now increasing by about
1.7% a year, yielding absolute population growth of about a quarter of a
million every day, or 100 million per year. From the 5.48 billion level
in 1994, world population is likely to reach 8.5 billion by 2025 and 10
billion by 2050. Ninety percent of this increase is projected to occur in
poor developing countries, while only 15% of world capital is likely to
be employed there. Ninety percent of the increase is also projected to occur
in urban areas, which, when combined with rapid migration into cities in
the developing world, translates into a projection that, by 2025, six out
of every 10 humans will live in urban areas.
Persistent Deprivation: One-third of the world's population currently
lacks access to sanitation, and one-fifth lacks access to clean water. Disease
from dirty water causes the deaths of more than 3 million children each
year. Nearly one-fifth of the earth's population is chronically malnourished
with twice as many hungry people as a decade ago; an estimated 35,000 people
die of starvation each day. 50 million people are currently threatened by
famine. Annual growth of grain production has averaged about 1% over the
last seven years, while population has grown at twice that rate. The amount
of cropland area per person has been shrinking steadily since 1950, as has
irrigated area per person; per capita food production has declined in more
than 50 developing countries since 1980. Approximately 900 million adults
are illiterate worldwide, with 75% of women older than 25 years in Asia
and Africa falling into this category. An estimated 100 million children
are receiving no primary education. Fewer girls than boys are enrolled in
secondary education, particularly in South Asia and Africa. Women worldwide
are estimated to be doing two-thirds of the world's work, yet receiving
only 10% of world income and owning only I% of the world's wealth. Finally,
one-third of the planet's population lacks access to health care; over 300
million couples lack access to family planning and contraception.
SUSTAINABILITY AS
SECURITY
Perhaps the most instructive way to begin translating sustainability
into action is to think in terms of Security. 4 Sustainability
in this view boils down to a search for safety, assurance and continuity
of the human future - which in the past was predominantly viewed in military,
cold war and East-West terms but increasingly is being redefined to center
on economic and environmental matters within a North-South framework.
Exhibit 1 provides a "security grid"
conceptualization of sustainable development with a continuum of eco-resource
security achievement on the horizontal axis and another of socioeconomic
security on the vertical. The lower left-hand corner of the Sustainability
Vector is most negative on both variables, and the upper right-hand corner
is most positive on both.
Eco-resource security involves the maintenance of the vital biological wealth
and ecosystems of the planet that provide a broad array of essential life
support services to humankind. Eco-resource security requires assurance
that humans have long-term access to an "environmentally efficient'
flow of nonrenewable resources and/or renewable substitutes for energy and
material use. Positive security depends on "maintenance of the natural
capital stock" 5 and ultimately "living off
nature's income instead of its capital " 6 A more
eco-resource secure world would thus entail less air and water pollution,
biogeochemical cycle disruption, global climate change, deforestation and
biodiversity loss, and improved human health, economic and resource productivity,
stability of resource supply, accommodation of population and economic growth,
and preservation of options for future generations.
The achievement of socioeconomic security involves assuring that as many
people as possible can meet their most basic requirements for a decent,
satisfying life of human dignity: food, shelter, safe water, education,
and healthcare. Achieving such material sufficiency requires a strategy
of poverty eradication that the World Bank has concluded "has two equally
important elements. The first element is to promote the productive use of
the poor's most abundant asset - labor. It calls for policies that harness
market incentives, social and political institutions, infrastructure, and
technology to that end. The second is to provide basic social services to
the poor. Primary health care, family planning, nutrition, and primary education
are especially important. The two elements are mutually reinforcing; one
without the other is not sufficient." 7
Socio-economic security requires people-centered development, assuring human
dignity, self-respect and freedom. Development must also be socially equitable
if it is to be politically and economically stable and viable. Increased
socio-economic security is essential for lowering fertility and thus population
growth, reducing infant mortality,, raising literacy and human productivity,
slowing migration and rapid urbanization, reducing vulnerability to political
instabilities, and alleviating poverty-induced resource destruction.
Exhibit I also arrays eight
working principles of eco-resource and socioeconomic security. These are
presented in a simplified version in Exhibit 2.
The "Moderation' principle, for example, urges industry to invest m
processes and technologies that reduce energy and material use, such as
energy-efficient refrigerators, packaging innovations, and design for disassembly.
The "Vitalization" principle proposes that corporations have a
responsibility to help in the provision of education, health care, and clean
water in the communities in which they operate. A full discussion of the
principles and their theoretical basis will be provided in Business,
Nature and Society: Towards Sustainable Enterprise, to be published
by Richard D. Irwin, Inc. in the near future.
An activity's impact relative to the eight principles collectively produces
a vector (i.e., a quantity that has magnitude and direction) of sustainability.
The exact center of the twodimensional space, or midpoint of the vector,
is the locus where human actions would be net-neutral in their overall impacts
on sustainability. Unsustainability would be associated with actions whose
impacts collectively fall in the extreme southwest comer of the grid: irreversible
damage to ecosystems; substantial loss of natural capital needed for the
growing human population; expanded throughput of nonrenewable energy and
materials; increased waste and resource inefficiency; concentration of economic
o opportunity in the hands of the very fortunate; reductions in the employment
of human capabilities in the production of goods or services; sole attention
to luxury or nonessential need fulfillment; and exclusion of those affected
from related policy and decision-making.
Actions inducing lesser amounts of net eco-resource degradation and/or socioeconomic
deprivation would move the locus of impact closer to the point of net neutrality,
therefore reducing relative unsustainability. Actions with collective impacts
falling into the northwest zone of Exhibit 1
(net socioeconomic enhancement with net eco-resource degradation) or the
southeast zone (net eco-resource improvement with net socioeconomic loss)
could represent areas of partial sustainability depending on the weighting,
reversibility, and dynamic effects of the impacts involved.
The designation of net sustainable, however, would only accrue to actions
with net collective impacts falling into the northeast cell of the grid.
Sustainability would be associated with any action that: enhances ecosystems
and their life support services; restores and expands the amount of natural
capital available for human use; reduces consumption of nonrenewable resources
in favor of expanded reliance on renewable substitutes; reduces waste and
improves resource efficiency; diffuses economic and life-improving opportunities
toward those who most need them; expands the employment of human capabilities
in economic activity and thus income-earning possibilities; focuses on provision
of goods or services related to basic need fulfillment; and includes affected
parties in policy and decision-making processes.
When using the exercises in this book, it may be useful to map the interests
of the various stakeholders and the ultimate outcomes from negotiations
onto the Sustainability Vector.
COMPETITIVE
OPPORTUNITIES FROM
SUSTAINABLE ENTERPRISE
Another way to look at sustainability is to assess how it will impact
individual corporations' competitive positions. When viewed from the perspective
of a business manager, eco-resource and socioeconomic security provide a
framework for evaluating business o ties. Exhibit
3 and Exhibit 4 show a range of
techniques that can be used by policy makers, business people, and communities
to promote sustainable
enterprise.
Of the six exercises in this book, there are two clear examples in which
the relationships between corporate competitiveness and environmental performance
are explored (Chlorine and the Paper Industry and European Union Carbon
Tax). Students and executives using the other exercises should assess the
behaviors of the corporate stakeholders in relation to the Sustainability
Vector and evaluate the premise that leading environmental performance offers
an opportunity for competitive advantage.
As policy makers, business people and consumers move in the direction of
sustainable development, regulatory and market forces are emerging to reward
actions that promote sustainability and discourage (or, alternatively, fully
price) actions that are unsustainable. Ultimately, business strategies that
are sustainable will also be the most competitive. However, this confluence
of sustainability with competitiveness has just begun. Consumer demand and
regulation have raised the competitiveness profile of ecoresource sustainability,
while community groups have been the strongest advocates of socioeconomic
sustainability.
In the early and mid- 1990s, most corporate environmental programs were
reactive, operationally focused and conformity driven. As a result,
claim leading strategy consultants and corporate leaders, many companies
have missed enormous opportunities for growth and innovation. These experts
argue that significant rewards are likely to flow to farsighted companies
that are proactive, strategically focused, and advantage-driven in their
approach to environmental sustainability. 8 The
Chairman of Royal Dutch Shell has claimed, "Excellence in environmental
stewardship may appear to be expensive, thus impairing our competitiveness
in some areas. However, we have always taken the longer term view that there
need be no incompatibility between business and environmental objectives."
Winners in the future will discover and exploit sources of advantage related
to environmental performance and community contributions.Competing on the
basis of eco-resource sustainability can be segmented in the following way:
Cost Leadership: Firms that provide customers with value comparable
to that offered by competitors, and do so in a more environmentally efficient
manner, can reap advantage through better margins. 9
One way to accomplish this is to incorporate environmental efficiency throughout
the company's "value chain." In designing, sourcing, producing,
marketing and distributing its product or service, a company should incorporate
the goal of producing the greatest value for customers while minimizing
pollution and waste. Examples of cost leadership are: pollution prevention
programs, energy efficiency in production, and restructuring of distribution
networks.
Differentiation:Firms can achieve advantage by differentiating their
products and services in environmentally oriented ways. If a company creates
the perception for cons that they are getting greater value with a "green"
product than they would with a competing product, then the "green"
product can command a premium price. If this premium offsets the extra costs
incurred in reducing environmental impact then the firm can achieve above
average margins. "Green" differentiation can enhance customer
loyalty and attract new consumers. Examples of differentiation are: phosphate-free
detergents, energy-efficient appliances, organic pesticides, and furniture
made with sustainably harvested wood.
Innovation:A company's core competencies ; the collective learning
of the organization, represent sources of advantage through new business
development. Prahalad and Hamel argue, "In the long run, competitiveness
derives from an ability to build, at lower cost and more speedily than competitors,
the core competencies that spawn unanticipated products. The real sources
of advantage are found in management's ability to consolidate corporate-wide
technologies and production skills into competencies that can power individual
businesses to adapt quickly to changing opportunities:" 10
When companies reshape markets or reconceptualize the making of a
product to reduce environmental impact (for example, by substituting a completely
new raw material for an existing raw material), they are engaging in innovation
that leads to sustainable advantage. Examples of innovation are: electric
vehicle production, development of lead-free solder, telecommuting products,
and production of low environmental impact products in disadvantaged communities.
Standard Setting: In industries where regulation and customer loyalty
are significant competitive factors, companies can gain advantage by moving
first to take an environmentally sustainable action. Although pioneering
has both costs and risks, companies that can gain regulator and customer
support can cement an advantage, particularly if competitors cannot imitate
the action cheaply. Examples of standard setting are: reformulation of gasolines,
financial incentives for energy conservation, and no-bleach-recycled paper
products.
Strategic Alliances and Partnerships: Companies can gain sustainable
advantage through alliances with other companies and partnerships with untraditional
allies such as nonprofit organizations and government agencies. Joint ventures,
research and development consortia, and cross-licensing permit firms to
gain technology, skills, and market access and reduce the risks of entering
into new, environmentally beneficial businesses. Research and policy partnerships
with untraditional allies encourage better product ideas and increase the
public legitimacy of corporate environmental programs. Well-conceived and
managed sharing provides great benefits. Examples of strategic alliances
and partnerships are: joint electric battery research, collaborative study
of multimedia environmental regulations, and technology sharing for chlorofluorocarbon
elimination.
Tom Peters has argued that the profitable company of the year 2000 will
be "lean, green and clean."" Frances Cairncross, environment
editor for The Economist, believes that resolving the environmental crisis
"represents an extraordinary opportunity, perhaps the biggest opportunity
for enterprise and invention the industrial world has ever seen: 112 Michael
E. Porter has argued that "the conflict between environmental protection
and [national] economic competitiveness is a false dichotomy. It stems from
a narrow view of the sources of prosperity, and a static view of Competition:"
13
CORPORATIONS AND SUSTAINABILITY
Corporations are embedded in the functioning of the natural world and dependent
on its ecosystem services for resources and sustenance; they are also fully
enmeshed in the social world, dependent on its stability and vitality for
security and survival. Corporations, nature and society, in sum, will either
rise or fall together.
Sustainability thus demands that corporations and their members deepen their
personal connection with both the natural world and the larger community
as a source of organizational enrichment and renewal. Real hope is offered
by the view that sustainable corporate purpose and performance may represent
the major source of business success m this decade and thereafter.
Alfred North Whitehead observed that "systems, scientific and philosophic,
come and go. Each method of limited understanding is at length exhausted.
In its prime each system is a triumphant success; in its decay it is an
obstructive nuisance:" 14 The conventional market
capitalism that elevates growth over quality, the interest group politics
that dominates policy making, and the manic materialism that grips many
consumers systems in which actors pursue shortsighted advantage to the detriment
of community, nature, the poor, and the interests of future generations
- surely represent decaying systems. Our prospects for survival will be
improved only when environmentally sustainable alternatives rise to take
their place.
NOTES
1 Herman E. Daly and John B. Cobb Jr.,
For the Common Good: Redirecting Economy Toward Community, the Environment
and a Sustainable Future. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989).
2 Herman E. Daly, "Toward Some Operational Principles of Sustainable Development:' Ecological Economics 2, 1990: pp. 1-6.
3 The facts and figures represented in this section are drawn from Lester R. Brown et al, State of the World 1994 (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1994); United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 1993 (New York: Oxford University Press for the UNDP, 1993); World Resources Institute, World Resources 1994-95 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994); World Development Report 1992: Development and the Environment (New York: Oxford University Press for the World Bank, 1992).
4 Thomas N. Gladwin, Building the Sustainable Corporation: Creating Environmental Sustainability and Competitive Advantage, (Washington,D.C.: National Wildlife Federation, 1992) p.4.
5 David Pearce, ed., Blueprint 2: Greening the World Economy. (London: Earthscan Publications, 1991), p. 1.
6 World Resources Institute, Annual Report 1991: Promoting Sustainable Development and Conserving the Global Environment (Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute, 1991), p. 4.
7 World Bank, World Development Report 1990: Poverty, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 3.
8 Tom Peters, Lean, Green and Clean: the Profitable Company of the Year 2000. (Palo Alto, CA: The Tom Peters Group, 1991); Michael E. Porter, "America’s Green Strategy," Scientific American 263, 199 1: 168; Stephan Schmidheiny, with the Business Council for Sustainable Development. Changing Course: A Global Business Perspective on Development and the Environment. (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992);'The Management Institute for Environment and Business, Competitive Implications of Environmental Regulation, (Washington, DC: The Management Institute for Enviromnent and Business, 1994).
9 In fact, this is a complex argument. If pollution and waste are equivalent to raw materials that could be used productively, it will certainly reduce costs to reduce pollution. If pollution is associated with by-products of production that themselves have no productive value, cost savings can be derived only through reduction of the disposal costs associated with these by-products. See Walley and Whitehead, "It's Not Easy Being Green,"Harvard Business Review, May/June 1994, pp. 46-52 and the commentary on the article in the July/August 1994 issue for a discussion of competitiveness issues.
10 C.K. Prahalad and Gary Hamel, ','The Core Competence of the Corporation," Harvard Business Review, May/June 1990, pp.79-91.
1 1 Tom Peters, op cit., p. 17.
12 Frances Cairncross, Costing the Earth:The Challenge for Governments, The Opportunities for Business. (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1992), p.177.
13 Michael E. Porter, op cit.
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